George, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Mining and extraction technology

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Bissell first pursued a career in education, as Professor of Languages at the University of Norwich, Vermont, and then as Superintendent of Schools in New Orleans. After dabbling in journalism, he turned to law and was admitted to the Bar in New York City in 1853. The following year he was deeply impressed by the picture of a derrick on the label on a bottle of brine from Samuel M.Kier's brine well. Bissell saw in it a new possibility of producing petroleum and, with Jonathan G.Elveleth, formed the world's first oil company, the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company, on 30 December 1854. The Company obtained a sample of oil at Hibbard Farm, Titusville, Pennsylvania, and sent it for examination to Benjamin Silliman Jr, Professor of Chemistry at Yale University. He reported on 16 April 1855 that by simple means nearly all the oil could be converted into useful substances. Bissell acted on this and began drilling near Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. On 27 August 1859 his contractor struck oil at 60 ft (18 m). This date is usually taken as the starting point of the modern oil industry, even though oil had been obtained two years earlier in Europe by drilling near Hannover and at Ploesti in Romania. Bissell returned to New York in 1863 and spent the rest of his life promoting enterprises connected with the oil industry.

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SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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Corliss's father was a physician and surgeon. The son was educated at Greenwich, New York, but while he showed an aptitude for mathematics and mechanics he first of all became a storekeeper and then clerk, bookkeeper, salesperson and official measurer and inspector of the cloth produced at W.Mowbray \& Son. He went to the Castleton Academy, Vermont, for three years and at the age of 21 returned to a store of his own in Greenwich. Complaints about stitching in the boots he sold led him to patent a sewing machine. He approached Fairbanks, Bancroft \& Co., Providence, Rhode Island, machine and steam engine builders, about producing his machine, but they agreed to take him on as a draughtsman providing he abandoned it. Corliss moved to Providence with his family and soon revolutionized the design and construction of steam engines. Although he started working out ideas for his engine in 1846 and completed one in 1848 for the Providence Dyeing, Bleaching and Calendering Company, it was not until March 1849 that he obtained a patent. By that time he had joined John Barstow and E.J.Nightingale to form a new company, Corliss Nightingale \& Co., to build his design of steam-engines. He used paired valves, two inlet and two exhaust, placed on opposite sides of the cylinder, which gave good thermal properties in the flow of steam. His wrist-plate operating mechanism gave quick opening and his trip mechanism allowed the governor to regulate the closure of the inlet valve, giving maximum expansion for any load. It has been claimed that Corliss should rank equally with James Watt in the development of the steam-engine. The new company bought land in Providence for a factory which was completed in 1856 when the Corliss Engine Company was incorporated. Corliss directed the business activities as well as technical improvements. He took out further patents modifying his valve gear in 1851, 1852, 1859, 1867, 1875, 1880. The business grew until well over 1,000 workers were employed. The cylindrical oscillating valve normally associated with the Corliss engine did not make its appearance until 1850 and was included in the 1859 patent. The impressive beam engine designed for the 1876 Centennial Exhibition by E. Reynolds was the product of Corliss's works. Corliss also patented gear-cutting machines, boilers, condensing apparatus and a pumping engine for waterworks. While having little interest in politics, he represented North Providence in the General Assembly of Rhode Island between 1868 and 1870.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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George Stephenson was the son of the fireman of the pumping engine at Wylam colliery, and horses drew wagons of coal along the wooden rails of the Wylam wagonway past the house in which he was born and spent his earliest childhood. While still a child he worked as a cowherd, but soon moved to working at coal pits. At 17 years of age he showed sufficient mechanical talent to be placed in charge of a new pumping engine, and had already achieved a job more responsible than that of his father. Despite his position he was still illiterate, although he subsequently learned to read and write. He was largely self-educated.

In 1801 he was appointed Brakesman of the winding engine at Black Callerton pit, with responsibility for lowering the miners safely to their work. Then, about two years later, he became Brakesman of a new winding engine erected by Robert Hawthorn at Willington Quay on the Tyne. Returning collier brigs discharged ballast into wagons and the engine drew the wagons up an inclined plane to the top of "Ballast Hill" for their contents to be tipped; this was one of the earliest applications of steam power to transport, other than experimentally.

In 1804 Stephenson moved to West Moor pit, Killingworth, again as Brakesman. In 1811 he demonstrated his mechanical skill by successfully modifying a new and unsatisfactory atmospheric engine, a task that had defeated the efforts of others, to enable it to pump a drowned pit clear of water. The following year he was appointed Enginewright at Killingworth, in charge of the machinery in all the collieries of the "Grand Allies", the prominent coal-owning families of Wortley, Liddell and Bowes, with authorization also to work for others. He built many stationary engines and he closely examined locomotives of John Blenkinsop's type on the Kenton \& Coxlodge wagonway, as well as those of William Hedley at Wylam.

It was in 1813 that Sir Thomas Liddell requested George Stephenson to build a steam locomotive for the Killingworth wagonway: Blucher made its first trial run on 25 July 1814 and was based on Blenkinsop's locomotives, although it lacked their rack-and-pinion drive. George Stephenson is credited with building the first locomotive both to run on edge rails and be driven by adhesion, an arrangement that has been the conventional one ever since. Yet Blucher was far from perfect and over the next few years, while other engineers ignored the steam locomotive, Stephenson built a succession of them, each an improvement on the last.

During this period many lives were lost in coalmines from explosions of gas ignited by miners' lamps. By observation and experiment (sometimes at great personal risk) Stephenson invented a satisfactory safety lamp, working independently of the noted scientist Sir Humphry Davy who also invented such a lamp around the same time.

In 1817 George Stephenson designed his first locomotive for an outside customer, the Kilmarnock \& Troon Railway, and in 1819 he laid out the Hetton Colliery Railway in County Durham, for which his brother Robert was Resident Engineer. This was the first railway to be worked entirely without animal traction: it used inclined planes with stationary engines, self-acting inclined planes powered by gravity, and locomotives.

On 19 April 1821 Stephenson was introduced to Edward Pease, one of the main promoters of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR), which by coincidence received its Act of Parliament the same day. George Stephenson carried out a further survey, to improve the proposed line, and in this he was assisted by his 18-year-old son, Robert Stephenson, whom he had ensured received the theoretical education which he himself lacked. It is doubtful whether either could have succeeded without the other; together they were to make the steam railway practicable.

At George Stephenson's instance, much of the S \& DR was laid with wrought-iron rails recently developed by John Birkinshaw at Bedlington Ironworks, Morpeth. These were longer than cast-iron rails and were not brittle: they made a track well suited for locomotives. In June 1823 George and Robert Stephenson, with other partners, founded a firm in Newcastle upon Tyne to build locomotives and rolling stock and to do general engineering work: after its Managing Partner, the firm was called Robert Stephenson \& Co.

In 1824 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) invited George Stephenson to resurvey their proposed line in order to reduce opposition to it. William James, a wealthy land agent who had become a visionary protagonist of a national railway network and had seen Stephenson's locomotives at Killingworth, had promoted the L \& MR with some merchants of Liverpool and had carried out the first survey; however, he overreached himself in business and, shortly after the invitation to Stephenson, became bankrupt. In his own survey, however, George Stephenson lacked the assistance of his son Robert, who had left for South America, and he delegated much of the detailed work to incompetent assistants. During a devastating Parliamentary examination in the spring of 1825, much of his survey was shown to be seriously inaccurate and the L \& MR's application for an Act of Parliament was refused. The railway's promoters discharged Stephenson and had their line surveyed yet again, by C.B. Vignoles.

The Stockton \& Darlington Railway was, however, triumphantly opened in the presence of vast crowds in September 1825, with Stephenson himself driving the locomotive Locomotion, which had been built at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s Newcastle works. Once the railway was at work, horse-drawn and gravity-powered traffic shared the line with locomotives: in 1828 Stephenson invented the horse dandy, a wagon at the back of a train in which a horse could travel over the gravity-operated stretches, instead of trotting behind.

Meanwhile, in May 1826, the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had successfully obtained its Act of Parliament. Stephenson was appointed Engineer in June, and since he and Vignoles proved incompatible the latter left early in 1827. The railway was built by Stephenson and his staff, using direct labour. A considerable controversy arose c. 1828 over the motive power to be used: the traffic anticipated was too great for horses, but the performance of the reciprocal system of cable haulage developed by Benjamin Thompson appeared in many respects superior to that of contemporary locomotives. The company instituted a prize competition for a better locomotive and the Rainhill Trials were held in October 1829.

Robert Stephenson had been working on improved locomotive designs since his return from America in 1827, but it was the L \& MR's Treasurer, Henry Booth, who suggested the multi-tubular boiler to George Stephenson. This was incorporated into a locomotive built by Robert Stephenson for the trials: Rocket was entered by the three men in partnership. The other principal entrants were Novelty, entered by John Braithwaite and John Ericsson, and Sans Pareil, entered by Timothy Hackworth, but only Rocket, driven by George Stephenson, met all the organizers' demands; indeed, it far surpassed them and demonstrated the practicability of the long-distance steam railway. With the opening of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1830, the age of railways began.

Stephenson was active in many aspects. He advised on the construction of the Belgian State Railway, of which the Brussels-Malines section, opened in 1835, was the first all-steam railway on the European continent. In England, proposals to link the L \& MR with the Midlands had culminated in an Act of Parliament for the Grand Junction Railway in 1833: this was to run from Warrington, which was already linked to the L \& MR, to Birmingham. George Stephenson had been in charge of the surveys, and for the railway's construction he and J.U. Rastrick were initially Principal Engineers, with Stephenson's former pupil Joseph Locke under them; by 1835 both Stephenson and Rastrick had withdrawn and Locke was Engineer-in-Chief. Stephenson remained much in demand elsewhere: he was particularly associated with the construction of the North Midland Railway (Derby to Leeds) and related lines. He was active in many other places and carried out, for instance, preliminary surveys for the Chester \& Holyhead and Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, which were important links in the lines of communication between London and, respectively, Dublin and Edinburgh.

He eventually retired to Tapton House, Chesterfield, overlooking the North Midland. A man who was self-made (with great success) against colossal odds, he was ever reluctant, regrettably, to give others their due credit, although in retirement, immensely wealthy and full of honour, he was still able to mingle with people of all ranks.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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He was apprenticed to his uncles, makers of metalware, in 1815 and showed such aptitude for business that he was taken into partnership. On their deaths, Elkington assumed sole ownership of the business. In conjunction with his cousin Henry (1810–52), by unrelenting enterprise, he established an industry for electroplating and electrogilding. Up until c.1840, silver-plated goods were produced by rolling or soldering thin sheets of silver to a base metal, such as copper. Back in 1801, the English chemist William Wollaston had deposited one metal upon another by means of an electric current generated from a voltaic pile or battery. In the 1830s, certain inventors, such as Bessemer used this result to produce plated articles and these efforts in turn induced the Elkingtons to apply the method in their trade. In 1836 and 1837 they took out patents for "mercurial gilding", and one patent of 1838 refers to a separate electric current. In 1840 they bought from John Wright, a Birmingham surgeon, his discovery of what proved to be the best electroplating solution: namely, solutions of cyanides of gold and silver in potassium cyanide. They also purchased rights to use the electric machine invented by J.S. Woolrich. Armed with these techniques, the Elkingtons produced in their large new works in Newhall Street a wide range of gold-and silver-plated decorative and artistic ware. Henry was particularly active on the artistic side of the business, as was their employee Alexander Parkes. For some twenty-five years, Britain enjoyed a virtual monopoly of this kind of ware, due largely to the enterprise of the Elkingtons, although by the end of the century rising tariffs had closed many foreign markets and the lead had passed to Germany. George spent all his working life in Birmingham, taking some part in the public life of the city. He was a governor of King Edward's Grammar School and a borough magistrate. He was also a caring employer, setting up houses and schools for his workers.

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1891-1975

   George Marshall es uno de los pioneros del viejo Hollywood. Actor, guionista y director desde mediados de los anos 10, su filmografia en el ultimo de los cometidos citados supera el centenar y medio de titulos, entre largometrajes y peliculas de una o dos bobinas. Toca todos los generos, pero parece sentirse mas a gusto en la comedia. No es de los realizadores cuyo recuerdo perdura, y si tenemos en cuenta unicamente los westerns, hay que decir que solo los tres primeros resultan destacables. Su contribucion a La conquista del Oeste es lo menos resenable de la pelicula. Hace gala, en ocasiones, de un sentido del humor algo burdo.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Destry Rides Again (Arizona). 1939. 94 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Marlene Dietrich, James Stewart.

    When the Daltons Rode (Sendas siniestras). 1940. 80 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Randolph Scott, Kay Francis, Brian Donlevy, Broderick Crawford.

    Texas (Texas). 1941. 94 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. William Holden, Glenn Ford, Claire Trevor.

    Valley of the Sun (El valle del Sol). 1942. 84 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Lucille Ball, James Craig.

    Fancy Pants (El rey del Oeste). 1950. 92 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. Bob Hope, Lucille Ball.

    The Savage (El salvaje). 1952. 95 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. Charlton Heston, Susan Morrow.

    Red Garters. 1954. 90 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. Rosemary Clooney, Jack Carson.

    Destry. 1955. 95 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Audie Murphy, Mari Blanchard, Lyle Bettger.

    The Second Greatest Sex. 1955. 87 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Universal. Jeanne Crain, George Nader.

    Pillars of the Sky. 1956. 95 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Universal. Jeff Chandler, Dorothy Malone, Ward Bond.

    The Guns of Fort Petticoat. 1957. 82 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Audie Murphy, Kathryn Grant, Hope Emerson.

    The Sheepman (Furia en el valle). 1958. 91 minutos. Metrocolor. CinemaScope. MGM. Glenn Ford, Shirley MacLaine.

    How the West Was Won (La conquista del Oeste) (co-d.: John Ford, Henry Hathaway).

    Episodio: The Railroad (El ferrocarril). 1962. 165 minutos (duracion total). Metrocolor. Super Cinerama. MGM. Richard Wid mark, George Peppard, Carroll Baker, Lee J. Cobb.

    Advance to the Rear (La furia de los cobardes). 1964. 97 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Panavision. MGM. Glenn Ford, Stella Stevens, Melvyn Douglas.

1898-1985

   Nacido en Sacramento, California, acostumbraba a acompanar a su madre, actriz, cuando los rodajes no se hacian en estudio. El mismo fue actor infantil, pero despues de un parentesis impuesto por la guerra, decidio pasar al otro lado de la camara convirtiendose en un honesto y atareado ayudante de direccion durante los anos 20. Ya por entonces comenzo su larga colaboracion con Paramount, que sobrevivio hasta el final, aunque en los anos 40 tambien trabajo extensamente con 20th Century-Fox. A comienzos de los anos 30, Henry Hathaway comienza a dirigir, y comienza a dirigir westerns, basados en novelas de Zane Grey. Son un total de ocho, interpretados, con una sola excepcion, por Randolph Scott; peliculas de una hora de duracion aproximadamente que, sin embargo, tienen algo que otros productos similares de esos anos no tienen. Acaso se trata del sello de la productora, sin duda la que procuraba lanzar al mercado las peliculas mas elegantes; acaso, la versatilidad de un realizador novel llamado a abordar empresas mas ilustres. Lo consiguio poco despues, en 1936, con The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, una de sus obras emblematicas y, sin duda, una estupenda pelicula y un magnifico western, que se mueve en una linea claramente fronteriza en relacion con las senas de identidad del genero. Claro que ya antes habia dirigido una de sus obras mas populares, Tres lanceros bengalies (The Lives of a Bengal Lan cer, 1935). Los anos 40 encuentran a Hathaway inmerso en proyectos variopintos: peliculas de aventuras mas o menos exoticas, cine negro, algun que otro melodrama con tintes patrioticos… Son, basicamente, anos Fox, que ofrecen filmes tan logrados como The House on 92nd Street (La casa de la calle 92, 1945) y El beso de la muerte (Kiss of Death, 1947), con un antologico Richard Widmark. En los anos 50, mas de lo mismo, solidas muestras de cine de genero, alguna que otra pelicula mitica como Niagara (1953) y tres westerns memorables. No resistire la tentacion de destacar, entre ellos, El jardin del Diablo, situada en los albores de la pantalla ancha del CinemaScope, donde el realizador, entre otras virtudes, da buenas muestras de como aprovechar el formato. No solo eso, claro; la pelicula es un apasionante viaje vital en el que parecen haberse intercambiado los extremos, porque se parte de algo parecido a la muerte y se camina hacia la vida, simbolizada por una sugerente puesta de sol sobre la que se aproximan dos siluetas. Los anos 60 y los comienzos de los 70 nos muestran al fin a un director veterano, lleno de recursos narrativos que, casi sin darse cuenta, abusa a veces un poco de ellos, lo que no le impide ser, sin la menor duda, uno de los grandes nombres del western. A el se debe lo mas logrado de esa megaproduccion que pretendio ser La conquista del Oeste, particularmente el ultimo de sus fragmentos, The Outlaws. Cada western de Hen ry Hathaway es digno de una reflexion detallada. Al final de ella se llega a conclusiones como la de que, efectivamente, estamos ante un punado de peliculas mas importantes de lo que su superficie permite sospechar, importancia que es capaz de vencer el obstaculo, en otras ocasiones insuperable, de la falta de unidad. En efecto, el mundo de Hathaway es multifacetico, acaso conceptualmente poco fundamentado, pero, como no hay mal que por bien no venga, ello evita el peligro de un monolitismo esteril, que ha conducido a tantos creadores a elaborar universos de tedio, eso si, muy personales.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Heritage of the Desert (El legado de la estepa). 1932. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Sally Blaine.

    Wild Horse Mesa. 1932. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Sally Blaine.

    The Thundering Herd (La horda maldita). 1933. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Judith Allen, Harry Carey.

    Under the Tonto Rim (Estaba escrito). 1933. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Stuart Edwin, Fred Kohler, Verna Hillie.

    Sunset Pass (El paso del ocaso). 1933. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Kathleen Burke, Tom Keene.

    Man of the Forest (El hombre del bosque). 1933. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Verna Hillie, Harry Carey.

    To the Last Man. 1933. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Esther Ralston.

    The Last Round-Up (El ultimo rodeo). 1934. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Barbara Fritchie, Fred Kohler.

    The Trail of the Lonesome Pine. 1936. 102 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. Sylvia Sidney, Fred MacMurray, Henry Fonda, Beulah Bondi.

    Brigham Young – Frontiersman. 1940. 114 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Tyrone Power, Linda Darnell, Dean Jagger, Brian Donlevy.

    The Shepherd of the Hills. 1941. 98 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. John Wayne, Betty Field, Harry Carey, Beulah Bondi.

    Rawhide (El correo del infierno). 1951. 89 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Tyrone Power, Susan Hayward, Hugh Marlowe, Dean Jagger.

    Garden of Evil (El jardin del diablo). 1954. 100 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Fox. Gary Cooper, Susan Hayward, Richard Widmark, Hugh Marlowe, Cameron Mitchell, Rita Moreno.

    From Hell to Texas (Del infierno a Texas). 1958. 100 minutos. Color DeLuxe. CinemaScope. Fox. Don Murray, Diane Varsi, Chill Wills, Dennis Hopper.

    North to Alaska (Alaska, tierra de oro). 1960. 122 minutos. Color DeLuxe. CinemaScope. Fox. John Wayne, Stewart Granger, Capucine, Ernie Kovacs, Fabian.

    How the West Was Won (La conquista del Oeste) (co-d.: John Ford, George Marshall). Episodios: The Rivers (El rio),The Plains (Las llanuras)

    The Outlaws (Los bandidos). 1962. 165 minutos (duracion total). Metrocolor. Super Cinerama. MGM. Caroll Baker, James Stewart, Lee J. Cobb, Debbie Reynolds.

    The Sons of Katie Elder (Los cuatro hijos de Katie Elder). 1965. 122 minutos. Technicolor. Panavision. Paramount. John Wayne, Dean Martin, Martha Hyer, Earl Holliman.

    Nevada Smith (Nevada Smith). 1966. 128 minutos. Eastmancolor. Pana vision. Avco/Solar Productions. Steve McQueen, Karl Malden, Brian Keith, Arthur Kennedy, Suzanne Pleshette.

    5 Card Stud (El poker de la muerte). 1968. 103 minutos. Technicolor. Hall Wallis Productions (Paramount). Dean Martin, Robert Mitchum, Inger Stevens, Roddy McDowell.

    True Grit (Valor de ley). 1969. 128 minutos. Technicolor. Paramount. John Wayne, Glen Campbell, Kim Darby.

    Shoot Out (Circulo de fuego). 1971. 95 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Gregory Peck, Susan Tyrell, Robert F. Lyons, Rita Gam.

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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His father was a mason and brickmaker but, anxious to improve himself, Cort set up in London in 1765 as a navy agent, said to have been a profitable business. He recognized that, at that time, the conversion of pig iron to malleable or wrought iron, which was needed in increasing quantities as developments in industry and mechanical engineering gathered pace, presented a bottleneck in the ironmaking process. The finery hearth was still in use, slow and inefficient and requiring the scarce charcoal as fuel. To tackle this problem, Cort gave up his business and acquired a furnace and slitting mill at Fontley, near Fareham in Hampshire. In 1784 he patented his puddling process, by which molten pig iron on the bed of a reverberatory furnace was stirred with an iron bar and, by the action of the flame and the oxygen in the air, the carbon in the pig iron was oxidized, leaving nearly pure iron, which could be forged to remove slag. In this type of furnace, the fuel and the molten iron were separated, so that the cheaper coal could be used as fuel. It was the stirring action with the iron bar that gave the name "puddling" to the process. Others had realized the problem and reached a similar solution, notably the brothers Thomas and George Cranage, but only Cort succeeded in developing a commercially viable process. The laborious hammering of the ball of iron thus produced was much reduced by an invention of the previous year, 1783. This too was patented. The iron was passed between grooved rollers to form it into bars. Cort entered into an agreement with Samuel Jellico to set up an ironworks at Gosport to exploit his inventions. Samuel's father Adam, Deputy Paymaster of the Navy, advanced capital for this venture, Cort having expended much of his own resources in the experimental work that preceded his inventions. However, it transpired that Jellico senior had, unknown to Cort, used public money to advance the capital; the Admiralty acted to recover the money and Cort lost heavily, including the benefits from his patents. Rival ironmasters were quick to pillage the patents. In 1790, and again the following year, Cort offered unsuccessfully to work for the military. Finally, in 1794, at the instigation of the Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, Cort was paid a pension of £200 per year in recognition of the value of his improvements in the technology of ironmaking, although this was reduced by deductions to £160. After his death, the pension to his widow was halved, while some of his children received a pittance. Without the advances made by Cort, however, the iron trade could not have met the rapidly increasing demand for iron during the industrial revolution.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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The young Eastman was a clerk-bookkeeper in the Rochester Savings Bank when in 1877 he took up photography. Taking lessons in the wet-plate process, he became an enthusiastic amateur photographer. However, the cumbersome equipment and noxious chemicals used in the process proved an obstacle, as he said, "It seemed to be that one ought to be able to carry less than a pack-horse load." Then he came across an account of the new gelatine dry-plate process in the British Journal of Photography of March 1878. He experimented in coating glass plates with the new emulsions, and was soon so successful that he decided to go into commercial manufacture. He devised a machine to simplify the coating of the plates, and travelled to England in July 1879 to patent it. In April 1880 he prepared to begin manufacture in a rented building in Rochester, and contacted the leading American photographic supply house, E. \& H.T.Anthony, offering them an option as agents. A local whip manufacturer, Henry A.Strong, invested $1,000 in the enterprise and the Eastman Dry Plate Company was formed on 1 January 1881. Still working at the Savings Bank, he ran the business in his spare time, and demand grew for the quality product he was producing. The fledgling company survived a near disaster in 1882 when the quality of the emulsions dropped alarmingly. Eastman later discovered this was due to impurities in the gelatine used, and this led him to test all raw materials rigorously for quality. In 1884 the company became a corporation, the Eastman Dry Plate \& Film Company, and a new product was announced. Mindful of his desire to simplify photography, Eastman, with a camera maker, William H.Walker, designed a roll-holder in which the heavy glass plates were replaced by a roll of emulsion-coated paper. The holders were made in sizes suitable for most plate cameras. Eastman designed and patented a coating machine for the large-scale production of the paper film, bringing costs down dramatically, the roll-holders were acclaimed by photographers worldwide, and prizes and medals were awarded, but Eastman was still not satisfied. The next step was to incorporate the roll-holder in a smaller, hand-held camera. His first successful design was launched in June 1888: the Kodak camera. A small box camera, it held enough paper film for 100 circular exposures, and was bought ready-loaded. After the film had been exposed, the camera was returned to Eastman's factory, where the film was removed, processed and printed, and the camera reloaded. This developing and printing service was the most revolutionary part of his invention, since at that time photographers were expected to process their own photographs, which required access to a darkroom and appropriate chemicals. The Kodak camera put photography into the hands of the countless thousands who wanted photographs without complications. Eastman's marketing slogan neatly summed up the advantage: "You Press the Button, We Do the Rest." The Kodak camera was the last product in the design of which Eastman was personally involved. His company was growing rapidly, and he recruited the most talented scientists and technicians available. New products emerged regularly—notably the first commercially produced celluloid roll film for the Kodak cameras in July 1889; this material made possible the introduction of cinematography a few years later. Eastman's philosophy of simplifying photography and reducing its costs continued to influence products: for example, the introduction of the one dollar, or five shilling, Brownie camera in 1900, which put photography in the hands of almost everyone. Over the years the Eastman Kodak Company, as it now was, grew into a giant multinational corporation with manufacturing and marketing organizations throughout the world. Eastman continued to guide the company; he pursued an enlightened policy of employee welfare and profit sharing decades before this was common in industry. He made massive donations to many concerns, notably the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and supported schemes for the education of black people, dental welfare, calendar reform, music and many other causes, he withdrew from the day-to-day control of the company in 1925, and at last had time for recreation. On 14 March 1932, suffering from a painful terminal cancer and after tidying up his affairs, he shot himself through the heart, leaving a note: "To my friends: My work is done. Why wait?" Although Eastman's technical innovations were made mostly at the beginning of his career, the organization which he founded and guided in its formative years was responsible for many of the major advances in photography over the years.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Booth followed his father as a Liverpool corn merchant but had great mechanical aptitude. In 1824 he joined the committee for the proposed Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) and after the company obtained its Act of Parliament in 1826 he was appointed Treasurer.

In 1829 the L \& MR announced a prize competition, the Rainhill Trials, for an improved steam locomotive: Booth, realizing that the power of a locomotive depended largely upon its capacity to raise steam, had the idea that this could be maximized by passing burning gases from the fire through the boiler in many small tubes to increase the heating surface, rather than in one large one, as was then the practice. He was apparently unaware of work on this type of boiler even then being done by Marc Seguin, and the 1791 American patent by John Stevens. Booth discussed his idea with George Stephenson, and a boiler of this type was incorporated into the locomotive Rocket, which was built by Robert Stephenson and entered in the Trials by Booth and the two Stephensons in partnership. The boiler enabled Rocket to do all that was required in the trials, and far more: it became the prototype for all subsequent conventional locomotive boilers.

After the L \& MR opened in 1830, Booth as Treasurer became in effect the general superintendent and was later General Manager. He invented screw couplings for use with sprung buffers. When the L \& MR was absorbed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1845 he became Secretary of the latter, and when, later the same year, that in turn amalgamated with the London \& Birmingham Railway (L \& BR) to form the London \& North Western Railway (L \& NWR), he became joint Secretary with Richard Creed from the L \& BR.

Earlier, completion in 1838 of the railway from London to Liverpool had brought problems with regard to local times. Towns then kept their own time according to their longitude: Birmingham time, for instance, was 7¼ minutes later than London time. This caused difficulties in railway operation, so Booth prepared a petition to Parliament on behalf of the L \& MR that London time should be used throughout the country, and in 1847 the L \& NWR, with other principal railways and the Post Office, adopted Greenwich time. It was only in 1880, however, that the arrangement was made law by Act of Parliament.

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1908-1991

   Nacido en Nueva York. Ayudante de direccion desde 1932 y director de mas de cien peliculas desde 1937, primero para Republic hasta 1944, mas tarde para Columbia hasta 1948, y despues hasta 1956 para Universal. A medida que pasaba de una productora a otra los presupuestos de sus peliculas iban siendo mas holgados, por lo que no es de extranar que su ultimo western, que es tambien su ultima pelicula, El gran Jack, sea la de presupuesto mas amplio y, dicho sea de paso, la mejor. Sherman es, sin lugar a dudas, uno de los grandes especialistas del western. Una ojeada a su filmografia hace innecesarias otras explicaciones; entre 1937 y 1943 trabaja a un ritmo frenetico para satisfacer las necesidades de algunas de las estrellas del genero, destacando, en particular, su dedicacion a la serie The Three Mes quiteers. A partir de 1946 realiza sus obras mas personales, que, sin pasar de discretas, cumplen sobradamente su cometido.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Wild Horse Rodeo. 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, June Martel.

    The Purple Vigilantes. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Joan Barclay.

    Outlaws of Sonora. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Jean Joyce.

    Riders of the Black Hills. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Ann Evers.

    Heroes of the Hills. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Priscilla Lawson.

    Pals of the Saddle. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Doreen McKay.

    Overland Stage Raiders. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Louise Brooks.

    Rhythm of the Saddle. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Peggy Moran.

    Santa Fe Stampede. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, June Martel.

    Red River Range. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Polly Moran, Lorna Gray.

    Mexicali Rose. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Luana Walters.

    The Night Riders. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Way ne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Doreen McKay, Ruth Rogers.

    Three Texas Steers. 1939. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Carole Landis.

    Wyoming Outlaw. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Raymond Hatton, Adele Pearce.

    Colorado Sunset. 1939. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, June Storey.

    New Frontier. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Raymond Hatton, Phyllis Isley (Jennifer Jones).

    The Kansas Terrors. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Jacqueline Wells (Julie Bishop).

    Rovin’ Tumbleweeds. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Mary Carlisle.

    The Cowboys from Texas. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Carole Landis.

    South of the Border. 1939. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, June Storey, Lupita Tovar.

    Ghost Valley Raiders. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lona Andre, LeRoy Mason.

    Covered Wagon Days. 1940. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Kay Griffith, Ruth Robinson.

    Rocky Mountain Rangers. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Rosella Towne.

    One Man’s Law. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Janet Waldo, Dub Taylor.

    The Tulsa Kid. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Luana Walters, Jimmy Wakely.

    Under Texas Skies. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, Lois Ranson.

    Frontier Vengeance (co-d.: Nate Watt). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Betty Moran.

    The Trail Blazers. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, Pauline Moore.

    Texas Terrors. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Julie Duncan, Al St. John.

    Lone Star Raiders. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, June Johnson, Sarah Padden.

    Wyoming Wildcat. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Julie Duncan, Syd Taylor.

    The Phantom Cowboy. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Virginia Carroll, Rex Lease.

    Two Gun Sheriff. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Desert Bandit. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Kansas Cyclone. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    The Apache Kid. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Death Valley Outlaws. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    A Missouri Outlaw. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Arizona Terror. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Stagecoach Express. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Jesse James, Jr. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St. John.

    Cyclone Kid. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Lloyd Andrews.

    The Sombrero Kid. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Lloyd Andrews.

    The West Side Kid. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Ba rry, Dale Evans, Henry Hull.

    Renegades (Renegados). 1946. 88 minutos. Technicolor. Columbia. Eve lyn Keyes, Willard Parker, Larry Parks.

    Last of the Redmen. 1947. 77 minutos. Cinecolor. Key Pictures (Columbia). Jon Hall, Julie Bishop, Evelyn Ankers, Michael O’Shea.

    Relentless. 1948. 93 minutos. Technicolor. Cavalier Productions (Colum bia). Robert Young, Marguerite Chapman, Willard Parker, Akim Tamiroff.

    Black Bart (El enmascarado). 1948. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Dan Duryea, Jeffrey Lynn.

    River Lady (Rio abajo). 1948. 78 minutos. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Dan Duryea, Rod Cameron, Helena Carter.

    Red Canyon (Huracan). 1949. 82 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Ann Blyth, Howard Duff, George Brent.

    Calamity Jane and Sam Bass. 1949. 85 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Howard Duff, Dorothy Hart, Willard Parker.

    Comanche Territory (Orgullo de comanche). 1950. 76 minutos. Techni color. Universal. Maureen O’Hara, MacDonald Carey, Will Geer.

    Tomahawk (El piel roja). 1951. 82 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvo n ne De Carlo, Van Heflin, Preston Foster, Rock Hudson.

    The Battle at Apache Pass. 1951. 85 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. John Lund, Jeff Chandler, Beverly Tyler, Susan Cabot.

    The Lone Hand. 1953. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Joel McCrea, Barbara Hale, Alex Nicol.

    War Arrow (Asalto al Fuerte Clark). 1954. 78 minutos. Technicolor. Uni versal. Jeff Chandler, Maureen O’Hara, John McIntire, Suzan Ball.

    Border River. 1954. 81 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Joel McCrea, Yvon ne De Carlo, Pedro Armendariz.

    Dawn at Socorro. 1954. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Rory Calhoun, Piper Laurie, David Brian, Kathleen Hugues.

    Chief Crazy Horse (El gran jefe). 1955. 86 minutos. Technicolor. Cinema - Scope. Universal. Victor Mature, Suzan Ball, John Lund, Ray Danton.

    Count Three and Pray. 1955. 102 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Co pa Productions (Columbia). Van Heflin, Joanne Woodward, Phil Carey.

    The Treasure of Pancho Villa (El tesoro de Pancho Villa). 1955. 96 min. Technicolor. Superscope. RKO. Rory Calhoun, S. Winters, Gilbert Roland.

    Comanche (Duelo de razas). 1956. 87 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Cinema Sco pe. UA. Dana Andrews, Kent Smith, John Litel, Linda Cristal.

    Reprisal! 1956. 74 minutos. Technicolor. Lewis J. Rachmil (Columbia). Guy Madison, Felicia Farr, Kathryn Grant.

    The Hard Man. 1957. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Romson (Columbia). Guy Madison, Valerie French, Lorne Greene.

    The Last of the Fast Guns. 1958. 82 minutos. Eastmancolor. CinemaScope. Universal. Jock Mahoney, Eduard Franz, Gilbert Roland, Linda Cristal.

    Ten Days to Tulara. 1958. 77 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. Sterling Hay den, Grace Raynor.

    Hell Bent for Leather. 1960. 82 minutos. Eastmancolor. Panavision. Uni versal. Audie Murphy, Stephen McNally, Felicia Farr.

    For the Love of Mike. 1960. 87 minutos. Color DeLuxe. CinemaScope. Fox. Richard Basehart, Stuart Edwin, Elsa Cardenas.

    Joaquin Murrieta. 1965. 108 minutos. Eastmancolor. Pro-Artis Iberica. Jeffrey Hunter, Arthur Kennedy, Sara Lezana, Diana Lorys.

    Smoky. 1966. 103 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Fox. Fess Parker, Katy Jurado, Diana Hyland.

    Big Jake (El gran Jack). 1971. 110 minutos. Technicolor. Panavision. Natio nal General. John Wayne, Richard Boone, Maureen O’Hara.

SUBJECT AREA: Horology

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Graham's father died soon after his birth, so he was raised by his brother. In 1688 he was apprenticed to the London clockmaker Henry Aske, and in 1695 he gained his freedom. He was employed as a journeyman by Tompion in 1696 and later married his niece. In 1711 he formed a partnership with Tompion and effectively ran the business in Tompion's declining years; he took over the business after Tompion died in 1713. In addition to his horological interests he also made scientific instruments, specializing in those for astronomical use. As a person, he was well respected and appears to have lived up to the epithet "Honest George Graham". He befriended John Harrison when he first went to London and lent him money to further his researches at a time when they might have conflicted with his own interests.

The two common forms of escapement in use in Graham's time, the anchor escapement for clocks and the verge escapement for watches, shared the same weakness: they interfered severely with the free oscillation of the pendulum and the balance, and thus adversely affected the timekeeping. Tompion's two frictional rest escapements, the dead-beat for clocks and the horizontal for watches, had provided a partial solution by eliminating recoil (the momentary reversal of the motion of the timepiece), but they had not been successful in practice. Around 1720 Graham produced his own much improved version of the dead-beat escapement which became a standard feature of regulator clocks, at least in Britain, until its supremacy was challenged at the end of the nineteenth century by the superior accuracy of the Riefler clock. Another feature of the regulator clock owed to Graham was the mercury compensation pendulum, which he invented in 1722 and published four years later. The bob of this pendulum contained mercury, the surface of which rose or fell with changes in temperature, compensating for the concomitant variation in the length of the pendulum rod. Graham devised his mercury pendulum after he had failed to achieve compensation by means of the difference in expansion between various metals. He then turned his attention to improving Tompion's horizontal escapement, and by 1725 the cylinder escapement existed in what was virtually its final form. From the following year he fitted this escapement to all his watches, and it was also used extensively by London makers for their precision watches. It proved to be somewhat lacking in durability, but this problem was overcome later in the century by using a ruby cylinder, notably by Abraham Louis Breguet. It was revived, in a cheaper form, by the Swiss and the French in the nineteenth century and was produced in vast quantities.

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See also: Barlow, Edward; Guillaume, Charles-Edouard